(AGENPARL) – Tue 09 December 2025 European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-025-02918-z
RESEARCH
Game changer: How middle childhood sport predicts reduced
oppositional-defiant behavior by early adolescence
Matteo Privitera1,2 · Kianoush Harandian3,4,5 · Luca Correale1,2 · Laura Fusar-Poli6 · Linda S. Pagani3,4,5
Received: 11 July 2025 / Accepted: 3 November 2025
© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2025
Abstract
Often under-diagnosed and comorbid with other developmental disorders, Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) predicts
long-term individual difficulties. On a symptom level, persistent oppositionality in childhood predicts negative adult
outcomes. Accessible community-based strategies that motivate adaptive child behavior are warranted. Organized youth
sport potentially offers a developmentally appropriate supervised and structured context that fosters adaptive behavior.
This study examines potential prospective associations between extracurricular middle childhood sport participation and
ODD-type behavior in early adolescence, hypothesizing stronger associations in boys. We conducted prospective secondary analyses using data from the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development. Participants included 1,492 children
(49% boys) with complete data on trajectories of sport participation (consistent or low-inconsistent) between ages 6 and 10
years, drawn from prior longitudinal latent-class analyses on the same cohort. Children self-reported ODD-type behavior
at ages 10 and 12 years. Ordinary least-squares regression estimated prospective associations for boys and girls, adjusting for baseline ODD-type behavior at age 6 and early childhood individual and family factors. Boys who consistently
participated in sport showed significantly fewer oppositional-defiant behavior at ages 10 (B = − 0.45, SE = 0.22, p < 0.05)
and age 12 years (B = − 0.46, SE = 0.22, p < 0.05) compared to boys with low-inconsistent participation. Associations at
both ages were not significant for girls. Sustained involvement in organized youth sport during middle childhood predicted
reduced oppositional and defiant behaviors among boys, supporting extracurricular activities as a natural community-based
strategy, thus suggesting long-term benefits for health, education, and social systems.
Keywords Oppositional-defiance · Defiant · ODD · Developmental psychopathology · Problem behavior · Disruptive
behavior
Introduction
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) refers to difficulties
in emotional and behavioral regulation that are clinically
associated with functional impairment in social settings and
which risk substantial personal challenges [1, 2]. Slightly
What is known: Under-diagnosed, under-treated, and comorbid
with other forms of developmental psychopathology, persistent
oppositional-defiant behavior in childhood predicts negative
outcomes in adulthood. Youth sport offers a context for shaping more
adaptive behavior, by successive approximation.
more common in males than in females, the prevalence of
this childhood disorder ranges between 3% to 6% in the
general population [3]. Symptoms typically emerge in early
childhood and behavioral predispositions are perpetuated by
mechanisms embedded in social interaction [2].
cohort of over a thousand boys and girls, we found a prospectivelongitudinal relationship between middle childhood sport and
subsequent reductions in oppositionality and defiance prior to middle
school. This finding, for boys, promises long-term public savings in
health, social, and educational sectors.
What this study adds: Using a prospective-longitudinal birth
All authors take responsibility for the integrity and the accuracy of
the analyses.
Extended author information available on the last page of the article
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According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
(DSM-5-TR), specific symptoms range along a continuum.
To achieve diagnosis, the clinical presentation requires
four or more behaviors across three domains that involve
angry/irritable mood (e.g., frequent temper loss, irritability),
argumentative/defiant behavior (e.g., defiance, noncompliance with rules, blaming others), and vindictiveness (e.g.,
spitefulness) which are manifested during interactions with
at least one person other than a sibling over a minimum of
six months [4]. Mood and proactive and reactive behavior
are directed toward authority figures, especially parents,
teachers, and even peers [2]. The associated risks can affect
families and communities over the short- and long-term
[5]. Although many children show improvement over time,
intensity and persistence of behavior forecasts risk of personal and occupational problems across the lifespan, including underemployment, conjugal difficulties, substance
dependence, and antisocial personality disorder [2, 6]. As
such, early preventive intervention in reducing oppositional
and defiant behavior in children, regardless of clinical diagnosis status, is key for optimal prognosis and reaching one’s
potential.
A challenge for these youngsters and their parents, by
consequence, is social integration [1]. Intervention with
exposure to peers without oppositional-defiant behavior
offers benefits [2]. For children with disruptive behavior,
such strategies can reduce undesirable interpersonal interactions and improve communication and social participation
[7]. Extracurricular sport purposely aims to offer developmentally appropriate and beneficial exposure by providing
a naturally occurring supervised social context where prosocial skills are intrinsically expected. These are reinforced by
typically developing peers that model behavioral collaboration and compliance with rules, rather than treating affected
children like targets of clinical intervention that explicitly
teaches socially appropriate interactions.
Defined, youth sport refers to organized physical games
for school age children that are structured, adult-led, somewhat competitive, and which typically occur in group
settings [8]. In middle childhood, parents opt for such
activities, which are often governed in accordance with
established formal rules [9]. There is the goal of technical
skill development, amusement, friendly competition, physical exertion, and social interaction [10]. It is plausible that
organized sport may not only mitigate oppositional-defiant
behavior but also foster the development of behavioral and
socio-emotional regulation in children exhibiting higher
levels of such behavior [2].
Sport as a remediation strategy is easier to implement
in community venues compared with clinical protocols.
Moreover, it is difficult to ethically organize similar
activities in clinical settings because typically developing
children are not readily available, and even if they were,
their parents might worry about iatrogenic peer contagion
from exposure to disruptive or turbulent behaviors [11].
Participation in community offerings of sport represents a
naturally occurring, organized context for expected exposure
to typically developing peers that may or may not model
appropriate behaviors, which resemble normative social
experiences at school. Thus, because extracurricular sport
groups are not purposely formed from an aggregation of
disruptive children, the specific clinical concern of negative
peer contagion is not a prominent nor limiting ethical factor
in community contexts.
On one hand, coached and structured sporting activities
encourage and reinforce symptoms akin to those targeted
in behavior therapy [12]. Both sport and therapy operate
on the principle that behavior is modifiable, and that
maladjustment can be improved through intentional effort.
The goal of both modalities is to gradually shape actions,
by successive approximation, toward more effective
behavior or performance [13]. Thus, youth sport can be
seen as an intervention to develop social skills such as
cooperation and communication, while simultaneously
fostering meaningful connections within an inclusive
team environment [12].
On the other hand, children with a greater predisposition
to problematic behavior, characterized by aggression, difficulty concentrating, or a tendency toward conflict, may
face significant barriers to participating in sport. Such youth
may struggle to adapt to team dynamics and risk being
excluded by coaches or peers or losing interest in the activity due to interpersonal challenges [14]. A large longitudinal study found that, according to parental reports, children
who discontinued participation in organized sport between
ages 8 and 10 years exhibited greater psychological difficulties compared to their peers who continued to participate
in these activities [15]. Therefore, consistent participation
represents a key factor.
Positive Youth Development Model offers a strengthbased framework that conceptualizes how participation
helps children cultivate personal strengths and develop
essential skills toward individual development and social
integration [16]. Such characteristics include respect for
others, empathy, socio-emotional and cognitive abilities,
self-efficacy, self-worth, and social connections [17]. This
framework underscores the role of structured activities
guided by adults in fostering competence, confidence,
connection, character, and compassion, all of which
are fundamental to positive developmental trajectories
[18]. In this context, the role of the coach or instructor
becomes pivotal. As a mentor and role model, such
adults not only motivate young sport participants but
also fulfill an educational function by instilling positive
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values, promoting adherence to rules, and contributing to
the creation of a safe, inclusive, and stimulating learning
environment [10].
Two recent reviews, based on exercise, underscore the
long-term effects of cardiovascular effort on executive
functions of children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity
Disorder, a condition that often accompanies oppositionaldefiant psychopathology [19, 20]. A third review suggests
that mixed exercise programs have the largest associated
reductions in symptomatology [21]. However, because of
the large differences in methodology and design, which
tested exercise interventions, the comparability remains
limited. Nevertheless, such findings are in line with community health approaches which promote purposeful physical activity and sport for social integration. There is some
prospective-longitudinal evidence from population-based
studies which suggests that engaging in afterschool sport,
which requires both effortful cognitive control and physical activity, has subsequent benefits for school and social
adjustment and health [22–24]. Yet, thus far, there are no
specific findings on youth opposition and defiance.
The differences between male and female developmental
experiences highlight the complexity and variability of the
role of sport participation in psycho-social youth outcomes
[25]. Given biological influences and gendered expectations, males and females experience risk and protective
factors in unique ways [26]. Antisocial behavior begins
to typically manifest during early childhood in boys, with
externalized symptoms such as aggression and violence [2].
For girls, problematic behavior is less common in childhood
and primarily occurs during adolescence, characterized by
irritability and rule defiance, often expressed verbally and
accompanied by tendencies toward social withdrawal [27].
For these reasons, it would be appropriate and beneficial to
treat males and females as distinct groups in research, to
achieve a more comprehensive understanding of these distinct experiences.
The purpose of this investigation is to examine the
prospective association between participation in organized
sport during middle childhood and subsequent ODD-type
child behavior, using a longitudinal population-based birth
cohort design, stratified by sex. Specifically, we aim to
assess whether consistent participation in organized sporting
activities from ages 6 through 10 years predicts behavioral
improvement at ages 10 and 12 years in typically developing
boys and girls. We hypothesize that engagement in structured
sport, beyond typical daily physical activity (such as outdoor
play, park visits, shopping, and neighborhood biking), will
promote a reduction in ODD-type behavior, particularly for
boys, while accounting for baseline parent-reported ODDtype behavior at age 6 years as well as other individual and
family factors.
Methods
Participants
Participants from this institutional review board (IRB)approved investigation are from the Quebec Longitudinal
Study of Child Development (QLSCD) birth cohort, coordinated by the Institut de la Statistique du Québec. The
original sampling, launched to track the growth of typically
developing children, consisted of 2,837 randomly selected
infants born between 1997 and 1998 in all administrative
regions of Quebec, Canada. At the inception of the study,
93 selected children were deemed ineligible as they were
born highly premature, presented major health problems,
were from multiple births, and/or were residing in Nord-duQuébec, Nunavik, or Terres-Cries-de-la-Baie-James at the
time of data collection. Moreover, 186 were unreachable
or untraceable, and 438 parents refused participation. Ultimately, 2,120 infants were deemed eligible for initial follow-up from age 5 months onward (​h​t​t​p​​:​/​/​​w​w​w​.​​i​a​​m​i​l​​l​b​e​.​​s​t​
a​​t​.​g​​o​u​v​​.​q​c​​.​c​a​/​​d​e​​f​a​u​l​t​_​a​n​.​h​t​m). Annual follow-ups occurred
during the early childhood years and biennial follow-ups
occurred during the school age years. For each collection
wave, informed consent was obtained from parents. During the school-aged phase, teachers and children also gave
consent. For this study, a subsample of 1,492 children (49%
boys) with complete data on sport participation from ages 6
to 10 years was retained [28].
Sport participation predictor (ages 6, 7, 8, and 10
years)
Mothers reported on two items regarding child participation
in organized sport at ages 6, 7, and 8 years: “In the last 12
months, outside of school hours, how often has your child:
(a) Taken part in sport with a coach or instructor (except
dance or gymnastics)? and (b) taken lessons or instruction
in other organized physical activities with a coach or
instructor such as dance, gymnastics, martial arts or circus
arts?” (0 = never, 1 = roughly once a month, 2 = roughly
once a week, 3 = several times a week, 4 = roughly every
day, 5 = 1 session, 6 = 2 sessions). At age 10 years, mothers
completed three items: “How many times a week has
your child participated: (a) In organized sport or physical
activity with a coach last summer?” (b) “in organized
sport or physical activity with a coach at school since last
September, outside of physical education classes?;” and
(c) “in organized sport or physical activity with a coach
outside of school since last September?” (0 = never, 1 =
less than once a week, 2 = once a week, 3 = twice a week, 4
= three times a week, 5 = four times a week, 6 = five times
a week or more). For all five items, past-year participation
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in sporting activity was computed as 0 = never participated
or 1 = participated [28]. Brière et al. [28] used longitudinal
latent class analyses to establish two typical trajectories
of participation in physical activity, structured by a coach/
instructor: 0 = low-inconsistent participation for children
who did not participate or participated only for a year or
two during that period and 1 = consistent participation for
children with elevated probability of participation from
ages 6 to 10 years.
Oppositional-defiant behavior outcomes (ages 10
and 12 years)
Using 4 items from the Social Behavior Questionnaire, children were asked how strongly they felt about the following
statements: I am defiant or refuse to comply with adults’
requests or rules; after I have misbehaved, I don’t feel sorry;
punishment doesn’t make me change my behavior; I have
temper tantrums or easily get angry [29]. Answers were
rated as from 1 = never or not true, 2 = sometimes or somewhat true, or 3 = often or very true. For each age, an average
score was calculated and brought to a scale ranging from 0
to 10.
Early childhood individual and family control
variables (ages 5 months to 6 years)
Extant literature indicates that several factors in the
selection of extracurricular activities are governed by
a myriad of pre-existing characteristics. For instance,
child characteristics, such as executive functioning, guide
parental choices regarding the selection of extracurricular
activities [30]. Simultaneously, parental and familylevel factors shape the perceived value of extracurricular
sport as well as parental willingness to dedicate time and
financial resources to such activities [31]. Beyond activity
selection, these same child, parent, and family factors are
concurrently identified as determinants of oppositional
defiance in children [3].
Individual
Child temperament problems were parent-reported at age
17 months, using 20 items from the Infant Characteristics
Questionnaire (ICQ; 0 = below the median, 1 = above
the median) [32]. Neurocognitive skills were evaluated at
age 29 months by research assistants using the Imitation
Sorting Task (scores ranging from 0 to 3) [33]. Oppositional-defiant behavior at age 6 years was reported by the
parent using 4 items from the Child Behavior Checklist
[34].
Family
Parent antisocial behavior was measured using the National
Institute of Mental Health-Diagnostic Interview Schedule
(12 items; 0 = below the median, 1 = above the median)
[35]. We also included family configuration (0 = intact, 1
= non-intact), family income (0 = sufficient income, 1 =
insufficient income as defined by the Canadian low-income
cut-off of that year provided by Statistics Canada [36]), and
family dysfunction which was reported by parents using 7
items from the McMaster Family Assessment Device [37],
with a lower score indicating a more functional family (0 =
below the median, 1 = above the median). Maternal education (0 = finished high school, 1 = did not finish high school)
and maternal depressive symptoms were self-reported using
an abridged 13-question version of the Diagnostic Interview
Schedule, where a higher score represents a higher level of
depressive symptoms (0 = below the median and 1 = above
the median) [38]. All family confounders were measured
when the child was 5 months old.
Data analytic strategies
Analyses
The longitudinal analyses are conducted in accordance with
a truly prospective design, enhanced with a change model
strategy in Mplus (v. 8.0) [39]. The prospective nature of this
longitudinal design is achieved by controlling pre-existing
individual and family factors to better isolate the benefits or
risks associated with the predictor on oppositional-defiant
symptoms at ages 10 and 12 years. This also helped adjust
for any omitted variable bias statistically or substantively
linked to the predictor or outcomes. Because populationbased study with repeated measures resembles a natural
experiment, the change model strategy additionally conditions out oppositional-defiant behavior at age 6 years, to
simulate a baseline effect of oppositional-defiant symptoms
at ages 10 and 12 years. Accordingly, using ordinary least
squares multiple regression, oppositional-defiant behavior
at ages 10 and 12 years were linearly regressed according
to sport participation trajectory status. Adjusted estimations
compared youth in the high-consistent trajectory with their
same-sex counterparts from the low-inconsistent trajectory,
stratified by sex.
Missing data
This study required data from various sources and waves. As
expected from a longitudinal study, some participants had
incomplete data. The Full Maximum Likelihood procedure
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was implemented to minimize biases and correct for attrition in the analyses. For each outcome, the predictor and
confound controls were entered simultaneously.
Results
Descriptive statistics
Table 1 reports descriptive statistics using SPSS (v. 26) for
all study variables, stratified by sex. Most children fell into
the ‘Consistent participation’ trajectory of organized sport
from ages 6 to 10 years (boys: 63.2%; girls: 67.3%). Average scores for ODD-type behavior decreased slightly over
time for both sexes. At age 6 years, the average score for
Table 1 Descriptive statistics for study variables
M (SD)
ODD-type behavior was 3.61 (standard deviation [SD],
2.13) for boys and 3.37 (SD, 2.08) for girls. This trend
remained consistent at age 10 years (boys: 2.89, SD 2.02;
girls: 2.56, SD 2.03) and age 12 years (boys: 2.71, SD 2.04;
girls: 2.48, SD 2.09).
Baseline child and family characteristics as
predictors of trajectories of participation in
organized sport
Next, we examined associations between early child and
family characteristics (from 5 months to age 6 years) and
sport organized participation trajectories from ages 6 to 10
years in Table 2, stratified by sex. Boys from families with
insufficient income were significantly more likely to belong
Categorical
variables (%)
Range
Girls
M (SD)
Categorical
variables (%)
Range
Predictors (6 to 10 years)
Sport participation trajectory
0 = Low-inconsistent
1 = Consistent
Outcomes
Oppositional-defiant behavior
0.00–10.00 626
0.00–
(age 10 years)
(2.02)
(2.03)
10.00
Oppositional-defiant behavior
0.00–10.00 635
0.00–
(age 12 years)
(2.04)
(2.09)
10.00
Pre-existing and concurrent controls
Parental antisocial antecedents
(age 5 months)
1 = above the median
Family configuration
(age 5 months)
1 = non-intact
Family dysfunction (age 5 months)
1 = above the median
Family income (age 5 months)
1 = insufficient
Maternal education (age 5 months)
1 = did not finish high school
Maternal depressive symptoms
(age 5 months)
1 = above the median
Temperament problems
(age 17 months)
1 = above the median
Neurocognitive abilities
(age 29 months)
0 = Score of 3
1 = Score of 2
2 = Score of 1
3 = Score of 0
Oppositional-defiant behavior
0.00–10.00 746
0.00–
(age 6 years)
(2.13)
(2.08)
10.00
M mean, SD standard deviation. Analyses corrected for attrition bias. Data were compiled from the final master file of the Quebec Longitudinal
Study of Child Development (1998–2010), ©Gouvernement du Québec, Institut de la statistique du Québec
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Table 2 Adjusted unstandardized regression coefficients (with standard errors) reflecting associations between baseline and concurrent child and
family characteristics between ages 5 months and 6 years and sport participation trajectories at ages 6 to 10 years for boys and girls
Sport participation trajectory (ages 6 to 10 years)
Girls
Parental antisocial antecedents (age 5 months)
−0.11 (0.20)
−0.19 (0.19)
Family configuration (age 5 months)
−0.14 (0.32)
−0.17 (0.28)
Family dysfunction (age 5 months)
−0.34 (0.20)
−0.04 (0.21)
Family income (age 5 months)
−0.70 (0.27)**
−0.84 (0.27)**
Maternal education (age 5 months)
−1.39 (0.35)***
−0.99 (0.30)***
Maternal depressive symptoms (age 5 months)
−0.42 (0.20)*
−0.56 (0.21)**
Temperament problems (age 17 months)
−0.19 (0.20)
0.04 (0.20)
Neurocognitive abilities (age 29 months)
−0.04 (0.13)
−0.35 (0.12)**
Oppositional-defiant behavior (age 6 years)
0.01 (0.05)
−0.02 (0.05)
Adjusted R2
0.135***
0.140***
*p ≤ 0.05, **p ≤ 0.01, ***p ≤ 0.001. Analyses corrected for attrition bias. Data were compiled from the final master file of the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (1998–2010), ©Gouvernement du Québec, Institut de la statistique du Québec
to the ‘Low-inconsistent’ trajectory compared to the ‘Consistent participation’ trajectory (unstandardized B = −0.70,
standard error [SE] = 0.27, p < 0.01). Similarly, boys whose
mothers did not complete high school (B = −1.39, SE = 0.35,
p < 0.001) and mothers had greater depressive symptoms (B
= −0.42, SE = 0.20, p < 0.05) had higher odds of falling into
the ‘Low-inconsistent’ trajectory.
For girls, family income was a significant predictor of
sport participation trajectory, with insufficient income
being associated with the ‘Low-inconsistent’ trajectory (B
= −0.84, SE = 0.27, p < 0.01). Additionally, maternal education played a key role, as girls whose mothers did not finish
high school were more likely to be in the ‘Low-inconsistent’
trajectory (B = −0.99, SE = 0.30, p < 0.001). Lower neurocognitive abilities at 29 months were associated with more
inconsistent participation in sport (B = −0.35, SE = 0.12,
p < 0.01).
Relationship between organized sport and
oppositional-defiant behavior
Table 3 reports whether trajectories of sport participation
from ages 6 to 10 years were associated with oppositionaldefiant characteristics at ages 10 and 12 years, stratified by
sex. Boys in the ‘Consistent participation’ trajectory exhibited significantly lower levels of oppositional-defiance at
age 10 (B = −0.45, SE = 0.22, p < 0.05) and 12 years (B =
−0.46, SE = 0.22, p < 0.05). These findings suggest a protective effect of consistent sport participation against ODDtype behavior in late childhood.
The association between sport participation trajectories
and oppositional-defiant features was less pronounced for
girls, noting no significant associations. However, at age
12 years, girls in the ‘Consistent participation’ trajectory
showed marginally lower levels of oppositional-defiance
compared to those in the ‘Low-inconsistent’ trajectory,
although this effect did not reach statistical significance
(B = 0.11, SE = 0.20, p = 0.05). Baseline oppositional-defiant
scores at age 6 years were a significant predictor of scores
at age 12 years (B = −0.11, SE = 0.05, p < 0.05), but not at
age 10 years.
Discussion
Persistent oppositional-defiant dispositions in childhood are
often underdiagnosed, undertreated, and frequently co-occur
with other developmental psychopathologies, contributing
to negative outcomes in adulthood. Given its structured yet
dynamic environment, youth sport provides a valuable setting for reinforcing adaptive dispositions through gradual,
incremental learning. Harnessing this context may offer a
promising avenue for intervention, fostering behavioral regulation and socio-emotional growth.
This study provides valuable insights into the role of
extracurricular sport as a potential intervention for reducing symptoms of developmental psychopathology in youth
from a typically developing birth cohort. We observed a
prospective relationship between partaking in juvenile
sport and subsequent improvements in behavior by ages 10
and 12 years. A central aspect of these findings concerns
the unique dynamics in the relationship between sport as
a naturally occurring childhood intervention, opted for and
encouraged by parents.
It is noteworthy that our findings predicted reductions
in ODD-type behavior only in boys. Compared with boys
who did not take part in consistent middle childhood organized sport, participation predicted subsequent reductions
in behaviors that include non-compliance with requests and
rules, lack of remorse, and temper tantrums at both ages 10
and 12 years, which corresponds to the end of fourth and
sixth grade. This is not surprising given that boys have a
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Table 3 Adjusted unstandardized regression coefficients (with standard errors) reflecting prospective-longitudinal associations between sport participation trajectories at ages 6 to 10 years and oppositional-defiant behavior at ages 10 and 12 years for boys and girls
Oppositional-defiant behavior
Age 10 years
Age 12 years
Sport participation trajectory (ages 6 to 10 years)
−0.45 (0.22)*
−0.46 (0.22)*
Parental antisocial antecedents (age 5 months)
0.00 (0.19)
−0.27 (0.19)
Family configuration (age 5 months)
−0.35 (0.30)
−0.18 (0.29)
Family dysfunction (age 5 months)
0.06 (0.20)
−0.22 (0.20)
Family income (age 5 months)
−0.31 (0.28)
−0.12 (0.31)
Maternal education (age 5 months)
−0.02 (0.38)
−0.07 (0.33)
Maternal depressive symptoms (age 5 months)
0.05 (0.20)
0.08 (0.20)
Temperament problems (age 17 months)
−0.10 (0.19)
−0.28 (0.19)
Neurocognitive abilities (age 29 months)
0.05 (0.13)
−0.19 (0.14)
Oppositional-defiant behavior (age 6 years)
−0.16 (0.05)***
−0.04 (0.05)
Adjusted R2
0.048*
0.038*
Girls
Sport participation trajectory (ages 6 to 10 years)
−0.23 (0.22)
0.11 (0.20)
Parental antisocial antecedents (age 5 months)
−0.12 (0.20)
−0.25 (0.19)
Family configuration (age 5 months)
−0.48 (0.33)
−0.38 (0.31)
Family dysfunction (age 5 months)
−0.16 (0.20)
0.24 (0.20)
Family income (age 5 months)
0.14 (0.30)
−0.29 (0.330)
Maternal education (age 5 months)
−0.41 (0.36)
−0.76 (0.32)*
Maternal depressive symptoms (age 5 months)
−0.24 (0.20)
−0.02 (0.20)
Temperament problems (age 17 months)
−0.10 (0.20)
−0.20 (0.18)
Neurocognitive abilities (age 29 months)
−0.13 (0.12)
−0.04 (0.11)
Oppositional-defiant behavior (age 6 years)
−0.01 (0.05)
−0.11 (0.05)*
Adjusted R2
0.030
0.047*
*p ≤ 0.05, **p ≤ 0.01, ***p ≤ 0.001. Analyses corrected for attrition bias. Data were compiled from the final master file of the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (1998–2010), ©Gouvernement du Québec, Institut de la statistique du Québec
higher prevalence of externalizing behavior in general,
and symptoms of oppositional-defiance more specifically
[2]. In fact, the measured averages for boys in this study
were higher than girls, as observed from ages 6 to 12 years,
despite having a similar variability, indicating a comparable
variability in scores across sexes.
Conversely, our findings suggest that organized sport
does not reduce ODD-type behavior in girls. When girls
exhibit oppositional-defiant behavior, they tend to exhibit
more irritability and indirect opposition, rather than more
direct or physical defiance, remorselessness, and tantrums
[27]. It is possible that the measured oppositional and
defiant behaviors in this study, typically prioritizing overt
symptoms, insufficiently capture the more interpersonal
and covert expressions of defiance present in girls. In fact,
ODD-type behavior assessed at baseline appear more predictive of early adolescence in girls, when sport trajectories
consolidate, than at age 10 years, a period still characterized by rapid developmental change and school adjustment.
These factors likely explain the lack of significant association. Therefore, findings from this study suggest that we
must look at other natural settings in schools or the community for cost-effective, efficient, and practical solutions to
reduce ODD-type behavior when present in girls.
There are several noteworthy findings concerning
factors associated with involvement in athletics in
this representative birth cohort of millennial children
growing up in middle class Canadian families. First,
socioeconomic and family factors, such as low income
and low maternal education, were associated with greater
chances of parents opting less consistently for child
participation in organized sport. This underscores the
importance of public policies aimed at reducing economic
barriers to active leisure and promoting access to
structured extracurricular physical activity venues in the
community for all children, regardless of socioeconomic
background [14]. Second, compared with sons of
mothers with less depressive symptoms, the presence
of maternal depressive symptoms was an additional
predictor of less adherence to sporting activities in middle
childhood. This suggests that maternal well-being may
indirectly influence the opportunity structure for boys to
extracurricular activities. Finally, parents of daughters
scoring lower on neurocognitive abilities were less likely
to opt for regular participation in sporting activities as a
supplementary vehicle of socialization apart from school,
compared with daughters scoring higher neurocognitive
abilities. It is plausible that behavioral and emotional
European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
dysregulation associated with lower working memory
in toddlerhood influenced parental choices in relation to
activities outside of school [40].
Theoretically, the structured nature of organized sport,
characterized by established rules, peer interactions, and
authority figures such as coaches, acts as a vehicle of socialization that fosters behavioral and emotional self-regulation
without identifying such children or their parents [25]. This
perspective aligns assumptions of Positive Youth Development [16], which underscores the role of structured activities, such as organized sport, in fostering key competencies
in youth. Accordingly, it is plausible that sport not only
enhances social skills, self-efficacy, and prosocial values
but also provides a structured environment that promotes
self-regulation and behavioral adaptation. Competence,
confidence, connection, character, and compassion are fundamental to positive development, and the present results
support this perspective by demonstrating how sustained
engagement in organized sport is associated with a reduction in oppositional-defiant behavior, particularly in boys
[18].
These findings are not without limitations. Although the
study identifies a prospective association between consistent
sport participation and reduced oppositional-defiant behavior, we cannot infer causality. Despite our change model and
chronological confounding control strategies, unmeasured
factors such as genetic predispositions or parental involvement in other community activities may have influenced
behavioral outcomes. Additionally, this study leveraged a
continuous dimension approach to symptoms rather than
relying on a categorical approach to diagnosis. The number
of participants who achieved criteria for actual diagnosis
and/or undergone targeted interventions such as psychological treatment or pharmacotherapy remain unknown [3].
Moreover, the reliance on child self-report for oppositionaldefiant behavior outcomes introduces the potential for social
desirability bias or limited self-awareness of disruptive
behavior. Because we conducted secondary analyses with
data from a child development study and not an explicit sport
study, the chances of social desirability in relation to “sport
participation” are unlikely and are thus spread across the
frequency distribution of responses. Because a correlational
longitudinal study using population-based birth cohort that
accounts for pre-existing competing explanations plus a
baseline measure resembles a natural experiment, obtaining
significant associations with self-reported behavior beyond
the parent-reported baseline measure attests to the strength
of the association between long-term sport participation and
later ODD-type behavior. Therefore, the robust relationship
observed is likely clinically meaningful.
This study has several strengths. It capitalizes on a large,
population-based longitudinal birth cohort, providing
robust and generalizable insights into the relationship
between socially meaningful variables in the community.
The birth cohort design allows for the control of preexisting confounds, including early childhood personal
and family factors, multiple sources, and bringing baseline
oppositionality statistically down to zero. Additionally, the
combination of self-reported measures of oppositionaldefiant behavior at ages 10 and 12 years with parental
reports of baseline behavior and sport participation
enhances methodological rigor by incorporating multiple
informants and data sources.
These findings have important practical implications.
Rooted in youth delinquency prevention, Positive Youth
Development Model emphasizes both thriving and risk
reduction. While sport may not directly target prosocial
behavior, it fosters positive assets such as self-regulation and
social competence, which are incompatible with contemptuous, non-cooperative, and disobedient behavior. This aligns
with the model’s strengths-based framework and its holistic developmental goals. First, they emphasize the need for
targeted community interventions to facilitate the inclusion
of children predisposed to behavioral difficulties, preventing the risk of exclusion by coaches or peers [14]. Moreover, since the benefits of sport participation appear to be
sex-specific at pubertal age, interventions should consider
population-specific strategies to maximize the effectiveness
of sport for boys. Finally, we must address the crucial role
of coaches and other adult figures in creating a positive and
inclusive sport environment, underscoring the importance
of specialized training to support children with behavioral
difficulties [10]. Future research should explore potential
mediating mechanisms, such as improvements in executive
functioning, peer relationships, and emotional self-regulation, which may explain the link between organized sport
and reduced problem behavior of a defiant nature.
Overall, this study adds to the accumulation of evidence
on the beneficial role of extracurricular sporting activities
on children’s socio-emotional and behavioral development
[10, 13, 16]. Promoting early and sustained involvement
represents an actionable community strategy for reducing
challenging behavior, particularly for boys. While we did
not detect benefits for girls, another study conducted on this
birth cohort has shown sex-specific pathways through which
sport participation contributes to improving attention-deficit/hyperactivity symptoms [9]. Given the role of sporting activities in fostering discipline, teamwork, and social
integration, ensuring equitable access to structured physical
activities remains a valuable public health and educational
objective. Policies that lower cost barriers, inform parents of
potential benefits, and support inclusive coaching may help
broaden access. Our findings suggest sustained involvement in organized youth sport as an affordable and effective
European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
ethical community strategy for reducing ODD-type behavior by early adolescence in boys, foreseeing long-term public savings in health, social, and educational sectors.
Acknowledgements We would like to gratefully acknowledge
the parent and child participants and the important contribution of
Frédéric Nault-Brière to this research (deceased, June 2020). We
acknowledge the generous funding provided by the Fondation
Lucie et André Chagnon, theInstitut de la Statistique du Québec,
the Ministère de l'Éducation et de l'Enseignement supérieur, the
Ministère de la Famille, the Institut de recherche Robert-Sauvé en
santé et en sécurité du travail, the Centre hospitalier universitaire
Sainte-Justine, and the Ministère de la Santé et des Services sociaux
du Québec. These original sponsors provided funding for the larger
public data set that constitutes the original Quebec Longitudinal
Study of Child Development. Source: Data compiled from the final
master file ‘E1-E20’ from the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child
Development (1998–2017), ©Gouvernement du Québec, Institut de
la statistique du Québec.
Author contributions Conceptualization, M.P., K.H., L.C., and
L.S.P.; methodology, M.P., K.H., and L.S.P.; validation, K.H. ; formal
analysis, K.H.; writing—original draft preparation, M.P. and K.H.;
writing—review and editing, M.P., K.H., L.F.-P., L.C., and L.S.P.;
funding acquisition, L.S.P. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding This work was supported by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (grant #435-2024-0528).
Data availability The data presented in this study are available on
request from the Institut de la Statistique du Québec (ISQ). The data
are not publicly available due to permission of the ISQ.
Declarations
Informed consent Informed consent was obtained from all subjects
involved in the study.
Institutional review board statement This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board (Ethics Committee) of Faculty of Arts and
Sciences of the University of Montreal (CEREP#2024–5503, issued
April 17, 2024) for studies involving humans.
Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.
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Authors and Affiliations
Matteo Privitera1,2 · Kianoush Harandian3,4,5 · Luca Correale1,2 · Laura Fusar-Poli6 · Linda S. Pagani3,4,5
Linda S. Pagani
Department of Public Health, Experimental Medicine and
Forensic Sciences, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy
Matteo Privitera
Human Locomotion Lab, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
Kianoush Harandian
School of Psycho-Education, Université de Montréal,
Montreal, Canada
Luca Correale
Sainte-Justine’s Pediatric Hospital Research Center,
Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
Laura Fusar-Poli
School Environment Research Group, Université de
Montréal, Montreal, Canada
Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of
Pavia, Pavia, Italy